Collective action under risk and uncertainty: assessing impacts on smallholder farmers' income and food security in Malawi

Introduction Smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa face increasing challenges, compounded by risks such as climate change, global conflicts, and food insecurity. Collective action has been promoted as a strategic mechanism to strengthen smallholder farmers' livelihoods, yet limited empirical evidence exists on its effectiveness under recent and compounding risks in Malawi. To address this gap, this study examines the impact of smallholder farmers' participation in collective action on household income and food security in Kasungu District, Malawi, during a period marked by climate shocks and market instability. Methods Data were collected through both qualitative and quantitative methods. Ten focus group discussions were conducted to identify the perceived benefits of participation in cooperatives, followed by a household survey with 475 farmers, including both cooperative members and non-members. Quantitative analysis applied difference-in-differences, entropy balancing, and doubly robust estimation to assess the causal effects. Results The findings suggest that cooperative membership significantly increased household income and improved dietary diversity, even amid deteriorating food security conditions in the region. However, results varied by gender. While male-headed households experienced improvements in both income and food security, female-headed households did not see significant improvement in dietary diversity despite the increase in income. The study also finds that support from non-governmental organizations played a key mediating role in facilitating farmers' participation in collective action. Discussion These results highlight the potential of collective action to enhance resilience and rural livelihoods under uncertain conditions, while also emphasizing the need for gender-responsive and institutionally supported strategies to ensure equitable outcomes.